Mast cells are granulated, multifunctional leukocytes that reside primarily in tissues. In harmful situations and as a reaction to environmental changes, they function as first responders, communicating with other cells as part of the immunological response. They are also implicated in the pathogenesis of several disease states, which include chronic allergies and inflammation, autoimmune disorders, and cancer. As a guide for investigating mast cells, this article will focus on the characteristic protein markers commonly associated with this unique cell type.
Mast cell precursors existed within invertebrate chordates, occurring two hundred million years ago prior to the emergence of immunoglobulin (Ig) genes. These primitive mast cells contained granules and resembled today’s connective tissue mast cells with their ability to release histamines and prostaglandins upon activation. In mammals, mast cells are leukocytes derived from bone marrow and released into circulation as immature cells where they subsequently migrate to peripheral tissues to complete their differentiation. Found primarily in tissues that interact with the external environment, they exist in skin, lungs, and the gastrointestinal tract. The proteomes of mast cells are unrelated to those of eosinophils, neutrophils, or basophils, but are important effector cells with the ability to detect pathogens via cell surface and intracellular pattern recognition receptors and respond with degranulation and pro-inflammatory cytokine production to fight infection. Dependent upon tissue location, protease patterns, and response to stimuli, mast cells can be classified as connective tissue or mucosal type.
Figure: A brief overview of mast cell functions and characteristic proteins and molecules.
Markers for mast cell maturation
Mast cells originate from hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow before entering the blood as mast cell precursors (MCp). MCp will then mature within peripheral tissues in a highly regulated process. Mast cells recognize immunological, inflammatory, and environmental cues from receptors such as CD34, CD13, c-Kit, and the IgE receptor FcɛRI. When stimulated, they release a variety of preformed cytoplasmic granules containing substances like histamines or proteoglycans. Mast cells also produce prostaglandins (PGE₂ and PGD₂), leukotrienes (LTB4 and LTC4), and cytokines (IL-1β, IL-4, IL-6, IL-9, IL-10, and IL-33) causing local inflammation, enhanced vessel permeability, and stimulation of peripheral nerves resulting in symptoms of itching, sneezing, and coughing.
Receptors such as c-Kit are responsible for mast cell survival, development, and maturation. In addition, it seems that IL-3 and IL-4 work together to promote mast cell growth and survival. In the mouse lung, the expression of integrin β7 has been reported as another marker of mast cell progenitor populations.
Markers for mast cell activation
Mast cell activation is induced by IgE-FcɛRI receptor cross-linking, which releases mediators such as histamines, heparin, PGD₂, LTC4, chymase, tryptase, and cytokines. This leads to a range of responses including smooth muscle contraction, increased vascular permeability, mucus production, and immune cell recruitment. Although mast cells are usually involved in host defense against pathogens and the promotion of wound healing, they have also been associated with severe allergic reactions, anaphylaxis, and several autoimmune diseases.
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Similar to the maturation phase, common markers expressed upon activation include c-Kit, IL-3Rα, and FcɛRI. In mice, mast cells also express markers such as ENPP-3 and CD63. Receptors for various ligands including cytokines, chemokines (CCL2 and CCL5), and SCF are also involved in mast cell activation. Upon stimulation by pathogenic receptors, mast cells will express TLRs 2-5, 7, and 9. TLR stimulation further promotes the expression of MyD88, an adaptor protein.
Markers for mast cell migration
Mature mast cells derive from mast cell progenitors, which serve as the pathway toward commitment. Migration of MCps to tissues is a regulated process stimulated by inflammation and leading to an increase in tissue mast cells. Markers found at this stage result from granulocyte release and include Lin-, c-Kit⁺, CD34⁺, and FcγRII/III (CD32/CD16). Since these markers are shared with basophils, this suggests there is a close development relationship between the two types of cells.
Mast cells in tissues are very long-lived, surviving up to 12 weeks, for example, in the skin. They are capable of degranulation and re-granulation and display organ-specific increases in number during human diseases.
Table of mast cell markers
The table below lists human and mouse proteins used for phenotyping different populations of mast cells as recently mentioned in the literature. Accompanying each listed marker are links to relevant antibodies and ELISA kits, as these immunodetection tools are routinely used in cell characterization studies via flow cytometry and immunostaining. The associated products are offered by a variety of manufacturers and can serve as a useful reference for mast cell immunophenotyping.
Gene | Synonyms | Marker Type | Protein Type | Localization | Size (kDa) | Reference | Antibodies | ELISA Kits |
ANPEP |
CD13 |
Activation |
Enzyme |
Cell Membrane |
109.5 |
1,3,5 |
ANPEP antibodies |
ANPEP ELISA |
CCL2 |
MCP1 |
Activation, Tissue |
Cytokine |
Secreted |
11 |
1,3,7 |
CCL2 antibodies |
CCL2 ELISA |
CCL5 |
RANTES |
Activation |
Cytokine |
Secreted |
10 |
3,5,7 |
CCL5 antibodies |
CCL5 ELISA |
CCR3 |
CD193 |
Migration |
Receptor |
Cell Membrane |
41 |
1,5,7 |
CCR3 antibodies |
CCR3 ELISA |
CD16 |
FcγRIII, FCGR3A |
Migration |
Receptor |
Cell Membrane |
29 |
1,3,7 |
CD16 antibodies |
CD16 ELISA |
CD27 |
|
Activation |
Receptor |
Cell Membrane |
29.1 |
1,3,5 |
CD27 antibodies |
CD27 ELISA |
CD32 |
FcγRII, FCGR2 |
Migration |
Receptor |
Cell Membrane |
34 |
1,3,7 |
CD32 antibodies |
CD32 ELISA |
CD34 |
|
Migration, Tissue |
Adhesion molecule |
Cell Membrane |
40.7 |
1,3,4,5 |
CD34 antibodies |
CD34 ELISA |
CD4 |
|
Activation |
Receptor |
Cell Membrane |
51.1 |
1,3,5,7 |
CD4 antibodies |
CD4 ELISA |
CD63 |
|
Activation |
Receptor |
Cell Membrane |
25.6 |
2,4,6 |
CD63 antibodies |
CD63 ELISA |
CPA3 |
MC-CPA |
Maturation |
Protease |
Secreted |
47.4 |
2,5 |
CPA3 antibodies |
CPA3 ELISA |
CXCR2 |
CD182, IL8RB |
Maturation, Tissue |
Receptor |
Cell Membrane |
40.8 |
1,3,5 |
CXCR2 antibodies |
CXCR2 ELISA |
ENPP3 |
CD203c |
Activation |
Receptor |
Cell Membrane |
100.1 |
2,5,6 |
ENPP3 antibodies |
ENPP3 ELISA |
F2RL1 |
PAR-2 |
Activation |
Protease |
Cell Membrane |
44.1 |
3,5,8 |
F2RL1 antibodies |
F2RL1 ELISA |
FCER1* |
IgE receptor, FCεRI |
Maturation |
Receptor, Multi-gene |
Cell Membrane |
|
3,4,5,6,7 |
FceR1 antibodies |
FceR1 ELISA |
FCER2 |
CD23, FcɛRII |
Activation |
Receptor |
Cell Membrane |
36.5 |
4,5,8 |
CD23 antibodies |
CD23 ELISA |
FOXP3 |
|
Activation |
Transcription factor |
Nucleus, Cytoplasm |
47.2 |
3,4,5 |
FOXP3 antibodies |
FOXP3 ELISA |
IFNG |
IFN-γ, IFN gamma |
Activation |
Cytokine |
Secreted |
19.3 |
1,3,4,5,7 |
IFNG antibodies |
IFNG ELISA |
IL10 |
|
Activation |
Cytokine |
Secreted |
20.5 |
1,3,4,5,7 |
IL10 antibodies |
IL10 ELISA |
IL12* |
|
Activation |
Cytokine |
Secreted |
|
3,5,7 |
IL12 antibodies |
IL12 ELISA |
IL13 |
|
Activation |
Cytokine |
Secreted |
15.8 |
3,4,5,8 |
IL13 antibodies |
IL13 ELISA |
IL17* |
|
Activation |
Cytokine |
Secreted |
|
3,7,8 |
IL-17 antibodies |
IL-17 ELISA |
IL1B |
IL1β, IL-1 beta |
Activation |
Cytokine |
Secreted, Cytoplasm |
30.7 |
3,5,8 |
IL1B antibodies |
IL1B ELISA |
IL1RL1 |
IL33R, ST2 |
Activation |
Receptor |
Cell Membrane |
63.4 |
1,2,3,5,7 |
IL1RL1 antibodies |
IL1RL1 ELISA |
IL2 |
|
Activation |
Cytokine |
Secreted |
17.6 |
3,5,7 |
IL2 antibodies |
IL2 ELISA |
IL2RA |
CD25 |
Activation |
Receptor |
Cell Membrane |
30.8 |
3,4,5 |
CD25 antibodies |
CD25 ELISA |
IL3 |
|
Activation |
Cytokine |
Secreted |
17.2 |
1,3,4,5 |
IL3 antibodies |
IL3 ELISA |
IL4 |
|
Activation |
Cytokine |
Secreted |
17.5 |
1,3,4,5,6,8 |
IL4 antibodies |
IL4 ELISA |
IL4R |
IL4Rα, CD124 |
Activation |
Receptor |
Cell Membrane, Secreted |
89.7 |
1,4,5 |
IL4R antibodies |
IL4R ELISA |
IL5 |
|
Activation |
Cytokine |
Secreted |
15.2 |
3,4,5,8 |
IL5 antibodies |
IL5 ELISA |
IL6 |
|
Activation |
Cytokine |
Secreted |
23.7 |
1,3,4,5,6,7,8 |
IL6 antibodies |
IL6 ELISA |
IL9 |
|
Activation |
Cytokine |
Secreted |
15.9 |
1,3,4,5,6 |
IL9 antibodies |
IL9 ELISA |
ITGA4 |
integrin α4, CD49d |
Migration |
Receptor |
Cell Membrane |
114.9 |
1,3,5 |
CD49d antibodies |
CD49d ELISA |
ITGAX |
CD11c |
Activation |
Receptor |
Cell Membrane |
127.8 |
1,4,5 |
CD11c antibodies |
CD11c ELISA |
ITGB7 |
integrin β7 |
Maturation, Tissue |
Receptor |
Cell Membrane |
86.9 |
1,3,5 |
ITGB7 antibodies |
ITGB7 ELISA |
KIT |
CD117, c-Kit |
General |
Receptor |
Cell Membrane |
109.8 |
1,2,3,5,6,7 |
KIT antibodies |
KIT ELISA |
KITLG |
KIT ligand, SCF |
Maturation |
Cytokine |
Cell Membrane, Secreted |
30.9 |
1,3,4,5,6,7 |
KIT ligand antibodies |
KIT ligand ELISA |
LY6C1 |
Ly6c, Gr-1* |
Maturation, Mouse only |
Receptor |
Cell Membrane |
14.2 |
1,3,5 |
Ly6c1 antibodies |
Ly6c1 ELISA |
mMCP-1 |
|
Maturation, Mouse only |
Protease |
Secreted |
|
3,4,5 |
mMCP-1 antibodies |
mMCP-1 ELISA |
mMCP-2 |
|
Maturation, Mouse only |
Protease |
Secreted |
|
3,5 |
antibodies |
ELISA |
mMCP-4 |
chymase |
Maturation, Mouse only |
Protease |
Secreted |
|
3,5 |
chymase antibodies |
chymase ELISA |
mMCP-5 |
chymase |
Maturation, Mouse only |
Protease |
Secreted |
|
3,5 |
mMCP-5 antibodies |
mMCP-5 ELISA |
mMCP-6 |
tryptase |
Maturation, Mouse only |
Protease |
Secreted |
|
3,5 |
Tryptase antibodies |
Tryptase ELISA |
mMCP-7 |
tryptase |
Maturation, Mouse only |
Protease |
Secreted |
|
3,5 |
Tryptase antibodies |
Tryptase ELISA |
MYD88 |
|
Activation |
Adaptor Protein |
Nucleus, Cytoplasm |
33.2 |
2,3,4 |
MYD88 antibodies |
MYD88 ELISA |
TGFB1 |
TGFB, TGF-β |
Activation |
Cytokine |
Secreted |
44.3 |
3,4,5,8 |
TGFB1 antibodies |
TGFB1 ELISA |
TLR2 |
CD282 |
Activation |
Receptor |
Cell Membrane, Cytoplasm |
89.8 |
3,5,7 |
TLR2 antibodies |
TLR2 ELISA |
TLR3 |
CD283 |
Activation |
Receptor |
Cell Membrane |
103.8 |
3,5,7 |
TLR3 antibodies |
TLR3 ELISA |
TLR4 |
CD284 |
Activation |
Receptor |
Cell Membrane |
95.7 |
3,5,7,8 |
TLR4 antibodies |
TLR4 ELISA |
TLR5 |
|
Activation |
Receptor |
Cell Membrane |
97.8 |
3,5,8 |
TLR5 antibodies |
TLR5 ELISA |
TLR7 |
|
Activation |
Receptor |
Cell Membrane, Cytoplasm |
120.9 |
3,5,7 |
TLR7 antibodies |
TLR7 ELISA |
TLR9 |
|
Activation |
Receptor |
Cell Membrane, Cytoplasm |
115.9 |
3,5,7 |
TLR9 antibodies |
TLR9 ELISA |
TNF |
TNF-α, TNF alpha |
Activation |
Cytokine |
Cell Membrane, Secreted |
25.6 |
3,4,5,7,8 |
TNF alpha antibodies |
TNF alpha ELISA |
TNFSF4 |
OX40L, CD252 |
Activation |
Cytokine |
Cell Membrane |
21.1 |
3,4,7 |
TNFSF4 antibodies |
TNFSF4 ELISA |
TPSAB1 |
tryptase |
Maturation |
Protease |
Secreted |
30.5 |
2,3,5 |
TPSAB1 antibodies |
TPSAB1 ELISA |
TSLP |
|
Maturation |
Cytokine |
Secreted |
18.1 |
3,4,5,8 |
TSLP antibodies |
TSLP ELISA |
VCAM1 |
CD106 |
Migration, Tissue |
Receptor |
Cell Membrane |
81.3 |
1,3,5 |
VCAM1 antibodies |
VCAM1 ELISA |
VEGF* |
|
Activation |
Growth Factor |
Secreted |
|
3,6,7,8 |
VEGF antibodies |
VEGF ELISA |
Note: *Some proteins are protein isoforms or multi-subunit protein complexes composed of several distinct genes. Information on Protein Type, Localization, and Size (kDa) obtained from UniProt.org (for human genes only).
Other mast cell markers
Certain markers will appear depending upon organ or tissue location. When blood MCps migrate to intestinal tissue, markers include Lin-, CD34⁺, β7 integrin, and FcɛRI. Assisting in homing to the intestinal region are markers such as VCAM-1 and CXCR2. Those two markers as well as CCL2 are expressed in lung. For cells mobilizing to the skin, markers include LTB4 and CCL2.
Several markers play a role in regulating one another. For example, when endothelial cells upregulate VCAM-1, that upregulation is mediated by TNFα. Also, the cytokine IL-9 can activate and support the growth of mast cells.
Allergens and respiratory viruses induce alarmin release such as IL-33 and TSLP. Il-33, a member of the IL-1 family accelerates maturation of CD34⁺ cells and induces secretion of Th2 cytokines and chemokines. IL-33 also promotes production of IL-13 and produces IL-2, which in turn expands the presence of CD4⁺, CD25⁺, and Foxp3⁺ and inhibits inflammation. The presence of these particular mast cell markers confirms the pathway associated with allergic asthma.
Developing a deeper understanding of the structure of mast cells while also determining their activation triggers could aid in the discovery of targeted therapies not only for asthma, but also for cancer and gastrointestinal diseases.
References
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3. da Silva EZ, Jamur MC, Oliver C. Mast cell function: a new vision of an old cell. J Histochem Cytochem. 2014;62(10):698-738.
4. Kanagaratham C, El Ansari YS, Lewis OL, Oettgen HC. IgE and IgG Antibodies as Regulators of Mast Cell and Basophil Functions in Food Allergy. Front Immunol. 2020;11:603050. Published 2020 Dec 11.
5. Méndez-Enríquez E, Hallgren J. Mast Cells and Their Progenitors in Allergic Asthma. Front Immunol. 2019;10:821. Published 2019 May 29.
6. Ikuno T, Ito S, Inoue T. Human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived mast cells useful for in vitro mast cell activation assay exhibiting phenotypes and morphological characteristics of human mast cells. J Toxicol Sci. 2019;44(11):789-797.
7. Oldford SA, Marshall JS. Mast cells as targets for immunotherapy of solid tumors. Mol Immunol. 2015;63(1):113-124.
8. Yanase Y, Takahagi S, Ozawa K, Hide M. The Role of Coagulation and Complement Factors for Mast Cell Activation in the Pathogenesis of Chronic Spontaneous Urticaria. Cells. 2021;10(7):1759. Published 2021 Jul 12.